Nowadays, If you send a letter to your family, you would naturally assume that no unauthorized person has read it before.
An early form of the secrecy of correspondence: The seals of the Romans
26.01.2022
Basically, when people think of seals, they would probably think of top-secret documents from the Dark Middle Ages. In fact, there are also very early seals whose existence is hardly known. The ancient Babylonians used cylinder seals: these were made of limestone and mostly depict domesticated animals. Also in the Crete Island, since the early Greek culture of the Minoans (2nd millennium BC) seals were already known: These stone seals were usually set in rings, and were mostly showing depictions of animals. And what about the ancient Romans? In fact, seals also played an important role for the Romans and they reveal valuable insights into the past. Therefore, in this article we want to take a closer look at the Roman seals and find out what modern Archaeology has to say about them.
Seal stones
The Romans were not the first inhabitants of the Apennine Peninsula using seals. Some seals from the Etruscans of the 6th century BC are preserved as well. These were beetle-shaped ring stones, also called scarabs: According to ancient beliefs, this seal shape, originally from Egypt, symbolizes eternal rebirth. The scarabs were made of carnelian gemstones and had an oval shape. They mainly show different figures and scenes from Greek mythology.
„Etruskischer Skarabäus, sog. Stosch'scher Stein“: Etruskischer Siegelstein mit Darstellung einer mythologischen Szene. Perugia, 1. Viertel des 5. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. | Antikensammlung – Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Foto: Johannes Laurentius
„Römische Gemme: Zwei geflügelte Pferde“. 1. Hälfte des 1. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. | Antikensammlung – Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Foto: Johannes Laurentius
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Carnelians were also used as sealing stones by the Romans. Some particularly beautiful carnelian seal stones from the late Republican period have been preserved, which date back to the 1st century BC. They show very different motifs: simple portraits, mythological depictions, images from everyday life or the cult of the gods can be seen in these seal stones. But consider this: Rome never had an official state seal that represented them, such as the one the communities (poleis) of the Greek East had had.
As the ancient authors testify, the first Roman emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) was also the first to seal with the image of the Sphinx, a mythical creature with a winged lion's body and a woman's head, which was used in Greco-Roman imagery, in particular seen as a symbol of hope. Augustus had two identical signet rings: one he wore on his finger, the other was left for his representative in Rome to seal on his behalf. The two seal rings of Augustus have not been preserved, but the reverse of a coin minted in Pergamum gives a rough idea of his seal image. Later on, Augustus sealed with the image of Alexander the Great and then, quite confidently he even sealed with his own image.
In contrast to Augustus' signet ring, however, numerous gems that may have been set in a ring and used as seals have survived. Often, however, it is not possible to say with certainty whether these gems were actually used as seals or merely served as a piece of jewellery or a lucky charm. The motifs on these gems are manifold: religious motifs can be found as well as various depictions of animals, portraits and everyday life scenes.
Carnelian seal stones were also very popular in late antiquity. What is new is the Christian orientation of the imagery: a sealing stone from the Eastern Roman Empire shows an upright anchor with a crossbeam and a fish to the right and to the left of it. The trained Christian will, of course, recognize the form of the cross here. The fish symbolism is further emphasized by the letters of the word ΙΧΘΥC, scattered on the right and left side of the picture: Greek ἰχθύς means fish and is an acronym for the formula Ἰησοῦς Χριστός Θεοῦ Υἱός Σωτήρ – Jesus Christ, Son of God, the Redeemer.
Incidentally, seal stones were also able to begin their triumphant march among the immediate neighbours of the Romans on the eastern border of the Roman Empire: among the Sassanids (224 – 651 AD). Their mostly round or oval, occasionally also rectangular seal stones are often made of carnelian. They also show a wide range of different motifs: depictions of animals are represented as well as human busts and standing figures. The image motif is often accompanied by a surrounding inscription in Middle Persian (Pahlavi). Occasionally, individual, multi-line inscriptions or monograms are shown on the seal stones.
„Gemme (Dextrarum Iunctio)“: Gemme mit Darstellung eines Handschlags (dextrarum iunctio) und eines Heroldstabs im Hintergrund. Die Gemme war wohl in einen Fingerring eingelassen. Ob dieser als Siegelring genutzt wurde, ist unklar. 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr. | Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, Foto: Frank Hildebrandt
„Siegelstein mit Anker und Fischsymbol, Karneol“. 4. Jahrhundert n. Chr. | Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst – Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Foto: Antje Voigt
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Seal capsules
But back to the Romans: some strange-looking small objects have often caused confusion in archaeological museums and were often non-specifically described ("uncertain object", "objet non identifié" or "objet énigmatique" or similar) or were incorrectly ("piece of bronze jewellery" or similar) described. But what are these strange objects of which even the experts often doubt their use or know so little about? These are seal capsules. These are mostly made of bronze, occasionally also made of bone, they consist of a lower part and a partially decoratively ornate lid and can look very different: Archaeologists distinguish above all the tongue/drop-shaped, triangular, square, rhombus-shaped, leaf-shaped and circular sealing capsules.
Regardless of how different these sealing capsules may look, the way they work is always the same: a string is pulled through two notches on the top edge and three or four holes on the bottom and its ends are knotted. Wax is then poured in, until it flows onto the wooden tablet to be sealed and glues the capsule to it. A signet ring is then pressed onto the wax and the lid is closed. This made it easy to open the lid later on, and check whether the seal was really undamaged or whether an unauthorised person had broken the seal and read the document. The natural and relatively fragile wax seal was protected by the sealing capsule during transport. Another advantage: the capsule could even be reused after cutting the cord.
As already mentioned, sealing capsules were mainly used to seal wooden writing tablets. These wooden tablets were covered with a wax coating, written on with a stylus, Latin stilus, and then folded up - and in a relatively few cases then sealed. Also coin purses and sacks of goods could be sealed in a similar way: In 1993, a huge gold treasure of 2,500 gold coins contained in a bronze vessel was found in Trier - a sensational find that happens very rarely. And at the very top of the jar was - who would have thought it - a sealing capsule.
Clay seals
But why are sealing capsules so common in the north and west of the Roman Empire, but not in the east and south? The following must be known about this: In the northern provinces, the aforementioned wooden writing tablets were mainly used as writing media, which were sometimes sealed with a wax seal and a sealing capsule. Sealing with wax was generally the norm and so naturally that it didn't even need to be mentioned in ancient literature. However, the Roman politician and author Cicero mentions a second type of seal: the clay seal. In the east and south of the Roman Empire, and especially in Egypt, papyri were the primary means of writing. These were sealed, if at all, in a different way than the wooden writing tablets: clay is significantly less heat-sensitive than wax and was therefore much more suitable as a sealing material for papyri; a sealing capsule was not necessary for the sealing of a papyrus.
“Tax receipt for a sacrificial calf”: clay seal (the god Soknopaios (?) as a crocodile with a sparrowhawk’s head on a snake with a circular indication of the year) on a papyrus from Fayum (Egypt), 2nd c. Century AD, Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung (Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection) - State Museums in Berlin, photo: photographer unknown
Considering the sophisticated use of sealing capsules and the wealth of images of Roman sealing stones, it is clear: Roman seals are a very interesting subject and it is extremely exciting to learn more about them. In any case, the images on the seal stones allow important insights into the culture and imagination of the Romans. So, seals were not only used for top-secret documents of the Dark Middle Ages: the Romans also gave each other “letter and seal”, although in a slightly different form.
Sources
Specialist literature
Furger, A. R.; Wartmann, M.; Riha, E.: Die römischen Siegelkapseln aus Augusta Raurica, Augst 2019 (Forschungen in Augst 44), online zugänglich unter: https://www.augustaraurica.ch/assets/content/files/publikationen/Forschungen-in-Augst/Fia44.pdf
Gyselesen, R.: Sasanian seals and sealings in the A. Saeedi collection, Belgium 2007 (Acta Iranica 44)
Instinsky, H. U.: Die Siegel des Kaisers Augustus. Ein Kapitel zur Geschichte und Symbolik des antiken Herrschersiegels, Baden-Baden 1962 (Deutsche Beiträge zur Altertumswissenschaft 16), online zugänglich unter: https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0010/bsb00109446/images/index.html; Zugang über die Deutsche Digitale Bibilothek unter: https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/QBDZ67NSXRMIHSNL2GQEGVTWZBOKOSWZ.
Vandorpee, K.; Van Beek, B: “Non signat Aegyptus”? Seals and stamps in the multicultural society of Greco-Roman Egypt, in: Regulski, I.; Duistermaat, K.; Verkinderen, P.: Seals and sealing practices in the Near East. Developments in administration and magic from prehistory to the Islamic period, Leuven; Paris; Walpole 2012, S. 81 – 98, online zugänglich unter: https://www.academia.edu/51500738/Non_signat_Aegyptus_Seals_and_stamps_in_the_multicultural_society_of_Greco_Roman_Egypt
Wassiliou, A.-K.: Siegel und Papyri. Das Siegelwesen in Ägypten von römischer bis in früharabische Zeit. Katalog zur Sonderausstellung des Papyrusmuseums der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek in Zusammenarbeit mit der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften/Kommission für Byzantinistik, 20. 9.-31. 12.1999, Wien 1999 (Nilus 4)
Popular scientific literature
Etruscan scarab with Tydeus: https://www.dewiki.de/Lexikon/Etruskischer_Skarab%C3%A4us_mit_Tydeus
Roman gems: https://www.alteroemer.de/de/blog/roemische-gemmen/
Roman wax tablets: https://www.forumtraiani.de/roemische-schule/wachstafel/
Wiesenberg, F.: Verwendung der römischen Siegelkapsel – oder: „Wie siegele ich richtig?“, Aachen 2008, online verfügbar unter: http://www.roemischer-vicus.de/downloads/verwendung_der_siegelkapsel.pdf
Wikipedia: „Rollsiegel“: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollsiegel
Wikipedia: „Siegelkapsel“: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegelkapsel